A 3-DOF Planar Rocket Flight Model with Atmospheric Coupling and Gravity-Turn Guidance Using Matlab

Author : Waqas Javaid

Abstract

This article presents an advanced rocket trajectory simulation developed in MATLAB using a three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) planar flight dynamics model. The framework incorporates Earth curvature effects, variable mass depletion, and thrust cutoff to realistically model launch vehicle ascent [1]. A layered standard atmosphere model is implemented to capture altitude-dependent temperature, density, and pressure variations. Aerodynamic drag is modeled as a Mach-dependent function with a smooth transonic rise to accurately represent Max-Q conditions [2]. The propulsion system includes altitude-corrected specific impulse and thrust variation between sea level and vacuum [3]. A programmed gravity-turn guidance law enables smooth pitch transition during ascent. The governing nonlinear differential equations are solved using adaptive ODE45 integration for numerical stability and precision. Key performance metrics such as altitude, velocity, dynamic pressure, flight path angle, and specific orbital energy are computed [4]. The simulation identifies critical events including burnout and maximum dynamic pressure. Results demonstrate a high-fidelity, computationally efficient tool suitable for aerospace research, trajectory analysis, and launch vehicle performance evaluation.

1. Introduction

The study of rocket flight dynamics is a fundamental aspect of aerospace engineering, enabling engineers and researchers to design and evaluate the performance of launch vehicles. Accurate trajectory prediction is critical for mission planning, safety analysis, and optimization of fuel usage.

Traditional analytical methods often oversimplify complex phenomena such as atmospheric drag, mass depletion, and gravity turn maneuvers, which can lead to inaccurate performance estimates. To address these challenges, computational simulations using MATLAB provide a flexible and high-fidelity approach for modeling rocket ascent [5].

Table 1: Earth Constants

This work presents a three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) planar rocket trajectory model that incorporates essential physical effects, including Earth curvature, altitude-dependent atmospheric properties, and variable thrust. Aerodynamic drag is modeled as a Mach-dependent function with a smooth transonic rise to capture realistic dynamic pressure conditions, particularly around Max-Q [6]. The propulsion system accounts for both sea-level and vacuum-specific impulses, ensuring accurate representation of engine performance throughout the ascent. A programmed gravity-turn guidance law is implemented to smoothly transition the vehicle from vertical lift-off to an efficient downrange trajectory [7]. Numerical integration is performed using MATLAB’s adaptive ODE45 solver, which provides stability and precision in solving the nonlinear differential equations governing motion. Key outputs such as altitude, downrange distance, velocity, flight path angle, dynamic pressure, and specific energy are computed and visualized through multiple plots. Critical events such as burnout and maximum dynamic pressure are identified to support detailed analysis [8]. The model’s flexibility allows for parametric studies, sensitivity analyses, and optimization of trajectory parameters. By combining atmospheric modeling, variable mass propulsion, and aerodynamic effects, the simulator achieves high fidelity while remaining computationally efficient [9]. This approach bridges the gap between simplified theoretical models and fully coupled multi-physics simulations used in professional aerospace applications. The resulting tool is suitable for educational purposes, preliminary vehicle design, and research studies on launch vehicle performance [10]. Overall, this MATLAB-based rocket trajectory calculator provides a robust platform for understanding and predicting the complex dynamics of rocket ascent in a realistic Earth environment.

1.1 Importance of Rocket Trajectory Modeling

Rocket trajectory modeling is a cornerstone of aerospace engineering and mission planning. Accurate trajectory prediction allows engineers to estimate maximum altitude, range, and velocity, ensuring mission success and safety. It is critical for optimizing fuel usage, designing guidance systems, and evaluating structural limits. Simple analytical models often ignore complex interactions like atmospheric drag, changing mass, and gravity effects, leading to suboptimal designs [11]. Computational simulations allow detailed analysis of these factors in realistic conditions. MATLAB provides a flexible environment to implement such simulations with high accuracy. By modeling rocket motion in three degrees of freedom (3-DOF), engineers can capture both vertical and horizontal dynamics [12]. This approach is applicable to a wide range of launch vehicles, from sounding rockets to orbital-class vehicles. Advanced trajectory simulations help identify critical events, such as burnout and Max-Q. Overall, trajectory modeling ensures mission reliability, efficiency, and scientific insight into rocket flight behavior.

1.2 Overview of 3-DOF Planar Rocket Model

The three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) planar rocket model describes motion in the vertical plane, combining downrange and altitude dynamics. Unlike simple one-dimensional models, 3-DOF captures the effects of changing flight path angle and horizontal distance. The model considers key forces including gravity, aerodynamic drag, and thrust. Earth curvature is included to improve accuracy over long trajectories. Mass variation due to propellant consumption is accounted for, influencing acceleration and trajectory evolution. Thrust cutoff at burnout is explicitly modeled for realistic flight termination conditions [13]. The model assumes planar motion, which simplifies computation while retaining essential dynamics. This makes it suitable for preliminary design studies, educational purposes, and early mission analysis. The 3-DOF approach provides a balance between computational efficiency and physical fidelity. By modeling both altitude and downrange motion, engineers can analyze trajectory trade-offs effectively [14].

1.3 Atmospheric Effects on Rocket Flight

Atmospheric properties significantly influence rocket ascent, particularly aerodynamic drag and dynamic pressure. Density, temperature, and pressure vary with altitude and affect the forces acting on the vehicle. A layered standard atmosphere model is used to capture these variations. Aerodynamic drag depends on air density, reference area, velocity, and drag coefficient. The drag coefficient itself varies with Mach number, especially around transonic speeds. Max-Q, the point of maximum dynamic pressure, is critical for structural design and vehicle integrity. Accurate atmospheric modeling ensures that predicted trajectories reflect real-world conditions. High-altitude regions have lower density, reducing drag and allowing higher velocities [15]. Conversely, low-altitude drag dominates early in ascent. Considering atmospheric effects is essential for high-fidelity trajectory simulation and risk assessment.

1.4 Variable Mass and Propulsion Modeling

Rocket mass changes continuously during ascent as propellant is consumed. Variable mass affects acceleration, thrust-to-weight ratio, and trajectory shape. Accurate modeling of propellant depletion is essential for predicting burnout time and final velocity [16]. Thrust varies with specific impulse, which is different at sea level and vacuum. Altitude-corrected Isp accounts for changing atmospheric pressure, providing realistic thrust estimates. Propellant mass flow rate directly impacts mass reduction over time [17]. Burnout is identified when remaining mass equals structural mass. Modeling variable mass ensures realistic acceleration profiles throughout flight. Neglecting this effect leads to significant errors in altitude and velocity predictions. Integrating variable mass with atmospheric drag yields a robust ascent simulation.

1.5 Aerodynamic Drag and Mach-Dependent Effects

Aerodynamic drag is a dominant force during the early ascent phase. It depends on velocity, air density, vehicle shape, and drag coefficient. The drag coefficient varies with Mach number, peaking near the transonic regime [18]. This transonic rise is critical for predicting Max-Q and structural loads. Mach-dependent drag captures compressibility effects that simple linear models cannot. Accurate drag modeling ensures the vehicle remains within safe aerodynamic limits. Drag reduction strategies, such as streamlined vehicle shapes, can be evaluated through simulation. Engineers can analyze the effect of changing drag on burnout velocity and trajectory. MATLAB allows dynamic computation of drag forces at each integration step. Including Mach effects improves simulation fidelity for both subsonic and supersonic regimes.

1.6 Gravity Turn Guidance Law

Gravity turn guidance is a widely used technique for efficient rocket ascent.

Table 2: Gravity Turn Guidance Parameters

It gradually tilts the vehicle from vertical to horizontal motion without large steering inputs. This reduces aerodynamic stress and maximizes downrange distance [19]. The guidance law defines pitch angle as a function of time. Early in flight, the pitch is near vertical to clear dense atmosphere. As altitude increases, the vehicle progressively tilts toward the desired flight path. Gravity turn minimizes propellant consumption while maintaining stable ascent. Modeling this guidance in MATLAB ensures realistic flight trajectories. It also allows identification of critical events such as pitch transition points. Proper implementation of gravity turn is essential for orbital insertion trajectories.

1.7 Numerical Integration and ODE45 Solver

Rocket motion is governed by nonlinear differential equations combining forces, mass variation, and guidance. Analytical solutions are impractical due to variable drag and mass. MATLAB’s adaptive ODE45 solver provides a reliable method for integrating these equations. It uses a Runge-Kutta method with adaptive step sizing for accuracy and stability. Event functions, such as ground impact detection, can be incorporated. Solver tolerances control precision and prevent numerical errors [20]. Adaptive integration handles rapid changes during burnout or transonic drag rise. This ensures smooth, accurate computation of altitude, velocity, and flight path angle. Numerical integration allows exploration of multiple flight scenarios efficiently. ODE45 provides a balance between computational speed and accuracy.

1.8 Key Performance Metrics

Trajectory simulation provides critical performance metrics for vehicle assessment. Altitude and downrange distance define mission envelope and target reach. Velocity and Mach number profiles determine aerodynamic loads and stage separation timing. Flight path angle indicates trajectory efficiency and stability [21]. Dynamic pressure helps identify Max-Q for structural design. Specific energy provides insight into orbital insertion potential. Burnout time defines propellant usage and engine performance. Maximum altitude and velocity inform mission feasibility. These metrics are essential for preliminary design, optimization, and risk analysis. MATLAB allows easy extraction and visualization of all these parameters.

1.9 Visualization and Scientific Output

Visualizing trajectory data enhances understanding of vehicle dynamics. Multiple plots are generated to show altitude, velocity, Mach, downrange distance, flight path angle, mass, dynamic pressure, and energy [22]. Markers indicate critical events such as burnout and Max-Q. Clear graphical output supports interpretation and communication of results. Visualization aids in comparing different guidance laws or design parameters. MATLAB provides flexible plotting functions for high-quality figures. Graphs allow engineers to identify performance trends and potential risks. Scientific visualization improves both research documentation and educational use. It also enables rapid debugging of model assumptions and equations.

1.10 Applications and Research Significance

High-fidelity rocket trajectory simulation has broad applications in aerospace research, education, and mission planning. It enables preliminary design of launch vehicles and optimization of ascent profiles. The simulator supports parametric studies to evaluate mass, thrust, or drag variations. It is useful for investigating gravity-turn efficiency and transonic flight effects. Researchers can study dynamic pressure, burnout timing, and energy characteristics. Educational institutions can use the model for teaching flight mechanics and propulsion principles. Industrial applications include mission planning, risk assessment, and vehicle certification [23]. The MATLAB framework allows rapid modifications for different vehicle configurations. Overall, trajectory simulation bridges theory and practice, providing a realistic, computationally efficient platform. This approach enhances understanding of complex flight dynamics while supporting scientific research and engineering innovation.

2. Problem Statement

Accurately predicting rocket trajectories is a complex challenge due to the nonlinear interactions between propulsion, aerodynamics, gravity, and atmospheric conditions. Traditional analytical models often oversimplify these effects, ignoring altitude-dependent air density, Mach-dependent drag, and variable mass, which can lead to inaccurate predictions of altitude, velocity, and flight path. Gravity-turn guidance introduces additional complexity, requiring smooth pitch transitions for efficient ascent. Critical events such as burnout and maximum dynamic pressure must be precisely identified to ensure structural safety and mission success. Additionally, transonic and supersonic aerodynamic effects introduce rapid changes in drag that are difficult to model analytically. Numerical integration methods must maintain stability while handling these rapidly varying forces. Accurate simulation is essential for preliminary design, mission planning, and risk assessment. There is a need for a computationally efficient framework that combines high-fidelity physics with adaptive numerical methods. MATLAB provides a versatile environment to integrate these complex models into a unified simulator. This project addresses these challenges by developing a 3-DOF rocket trajectory calculator that accurately models realistic ascent dynamics and provides actionable performance metrics.

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3. Mathematical Approach

The rocket trajectory is modeled using a three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) planar system, describing downrange distance, altitude, velocity, flight path angle, and mass as state variables. Forces considered include thrust, gravity, and Mach-dependent aerodynamic drag, with mass decreasing over time due to propellant consumption. The governing nonlinear differential equations are solved numerically using MATLAB’s adaptive ODE45 solver for stability and accuracy. Gravity-turn guidance is incorporated as a time-dependent pitch law to control trajectory shaping. Atmospheric properties, including density, pressure, and speed of sound, are modeled as altitude-dependent functions to accurately compute drag and dynamic pressure throughout the flight. The rocket trajectory is modeled as a three-degree-of-freedom (3-DOF) planar system with state variables for downrange distance (x), altitude (h), velocity (v), flight path angle (gamma), and mass (m). The equations of motion are defined as:

Where (T) is thrust, is aerodynamic drag, is gravity, and (alpha) is the angle between thrust and velocity.

These equations are integrated numerically using MATLAB’s adaptive ODE45 solver to simulate realistic ascent dynamics with atmospheric and propulsion effects. The equations of motion describe how the rocket’s position, velocity, flight path angle, and mass change over time during ascent. The downrange distance increases proportionally to the horizontal component of the rocket’s velocity, while the altitude increases according to the vertical component. The velocity changes due to the net effect of thrust along the flight path, aerodynamic drag opposing motion, and the component of gravity along the trajectory. The flight path angle evolves based on the lift from thrust perpendicular to the motion, the curvature of the Earth, and the gravitational pull acting perpendicular to the velocity. Propellant consumption reduces the mass over time, which in turn affects acceleration and thrust-to-weight ratio. Aerodynamic drag is calculated using air density, vehicle reference area, velocity, and a drag coefficient that varies with Mach number. Gravity decreases with altitude according to the inverse-square law, impacting acceleration along and perpendicular to the trajectory. The thrust vector is aligned with a guidance law to control the rocket’s pitch during gravity-turn maneuvers. Each term in the equations captures a specific physical effect, ensuring that the simulation reflects realistic flight behavior. Numerical integration of these coupled nonlinear equations provides time histories of all key trajectory parameters for analysis and visualization.

4. Methodology

The methodology of this study focuses on developing a high-fidelity rocket trajectory simulator using MATLAB, combining aerodynamic, propulsion, gravitational, and guidance effects in a unified framework.

Table 3: Rocket Physical Parameters

The rocket is modeled as a three-degree-of-freedom system, with state variables including downrange distance, altitude, velocity, flight path angle, and mass. Propellant consumption is accounted for using a variable mass model, which decreases the vehicle’s weight over time and affects acceleration and thrust-to-weight ratio [24]. Thrust is modeled with altitude-corrected specific impulse to reflect variations between sea level and vacuum conditions. Aerodynamic drag is computed as a Mach-dependent function, capturing transonic effects and identifying maximum dynamic pressure, or Max-Q, during ascent. A layered standard atmosphere model provides altitude-dependent air density, pressure, and temperature, which influence drag and Mach number calculations. Gravity-turn guidance is implemented as a programmed pitch law to gradually tilt the rocket from vertical lift-off to a downrange trajectory, minimizing steering losses and structural stress [25]. The governing nonlinear differential equations are solved using MATLAB’s adaptive ODE45 solver, ensuring numerical stability and precision during rapid changes in acceleration or drag. Event detection functions are used to identify key milestones, including burnout and ground impact, for performance evaluation. The simulation outputs include time histories of altitude, velocity, Mach number, flight path angle, dynamic pressure, mass, downrange distance, and specific energy. Visualization is performed through multiple plots to provide clear insights into rocket dynamics. Burnout markers, Max-Q points, and trajectory milestones are highlighted for analysis. Parametric studies are conducted to evaluate the effects of varying thrust, drag coefficient, and guidance parameters on ascent performance. Critical metrics such as maximum altitude, final velocity, and time to Max-Q are extracted and summarized. The methodology allows for sensitivity analysis to understand how small changes in design or environment affect trajectory outcomes. Computational efficiency is maintained by optimizing solver settings and minimizing unnecessary calculations. The simulator framework is modular, allowing modifications for different vehicle configurations, propulsion systems, or guidance laws. The approach combines theory, physics, and numerical methods to provide realistic ascent predictions. This methodology ensures that the trajectory simulator can support preliminary design, mission planning, and research applications. By integrating atmospheric, aerodynamic, and propulsion effects, the methodology provides a comprehensive and accurate platform for rocket trajectory analysis.

5. Design Matlab Simulation and Analysis

The methodology of this study focuses on developing a high-fidelity rocket trajectory simulator using MATLAB, combining aerodynamic, propulsion, gravitational, and guidance effects in a unified framework. The rocket is modeled as a three-degree-of-freedom system, with state variables including downrange distance, altitude, velocity, flight path angle, and mass. Propellant consumption is accounted for using a variable mass model, which decreases the vehicle’s weight over time and affects acceleration and thrust-to-weight ratio. Thrust is modeled with altitude-corrected specific impulse to reflect variations between sea level and vacuum conditions. Aerodynamic drag is computed as a Mach-dependent function, capturing transonic effects and identifying maximum dynamic pressure, or Max-Q, during ascent. A layered standard atmosphere model provides altitude-dependent air density, pressure, and temperature, which influence drag and Mach number calculations. Gravity-turn guidance is implemented as a programmed pitch law to gradually tilt the rocket from vertical lift-off to a downrange trajectory, minimizing steering losses and structural stress. The governing nonlinear differential equations are solved using MATLAB’s adaptive ODE45 solver, ensuring numerical stability and precision during rapid changes in acceleration or drag. Event detection functions are used to identify key milestones, including burnout and ground impact, for performance evaluation. The simulation outputs include time histories of altitude, velocity, Mach number, flight path angle, dynamic pressure, mass, downrange distance, and specific energy. Visualization is performed through multiple plots to provide clear insights into rocket dynamics. Burnout markers, Max-Q points, and trajectory milestones are highlighted for analysis. Parametric studies are conducted to evaluate the effects of varying thrust, drag coefficient, and guidance parameters on ascent performance. Critical metrics such as maximum altitude, final velocity, and time to Max-Q are extracted and summarized. The methodology allows for sensitivity analysis to understand how small changes in design or environment affect trajectory outcomes. Computational efficiency is maintained by optimizing solver settings and minimizing unnecessary calculations. The simulator framework is modular, allowing modifications for different vehicle configurations, propulsion systems, or guidance laws. The approach combines theory, physics, and numerical methods to provide realistic ascent predictions. This methodology ensures that the trajectory simulator can support preliminary design, mission planning, and research applications. By integrating atmospheric, aerodynamic, and propulsion effects, the methodology provides a comprehensive and accurate platform for rocket trajectory analysis.

This figure illustrates the rocket’s altitude progression from launch to the end of simulation. The vertical axis represents altitude in kilometers, while the horizontal axis shows time in seconds. The ascent begins with a steep vertical climb as the vehicle clears the dense lower atmosphere. As the gravity-turn guidance gradually tilts the rocket, the rate of altitude increase adjusts according to the flight path angle. Burnout is marked on the curve to indicate when the propellant is depleted, showing the transition from powered ascent to ballistic coasting. Early-stage drag reduces acceleration slightly, which is visible in the curve’s slope. After burnout, the altitude continues to rise more slowly due to residual velocity. The figure provides a clear visual reference for the maximum altitude achieved. It highlights how guidance and atmospheric effects influence vertical motion. This plot is essential for evaluating the effectiveness of propulsion and ascent planning.

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This plot shows the rocket’s velocity profile alongside Mach number evolution during ascent. The velocity increases rapidly at lift-off due to full-thrust operation. As altitude increases, air density decreases, which reduces drag and allows higher acceleration. The Mach number is calculated relative to the local speed of sound, showing how the rocket transitions through subsonic, transonic, and supersonic regimes. A noticeable flattening in velocity occurs near Max-Q due to peak aerodynamic drag. After burnout, the velocity gradually decreases under gravity, showing coasting behavior. This figure highlights the interplay between propulsion, drag, and atmospheric conditions. It is useful for assessing whether the rocket experiences transonic or supersonic aerodynamic loads. Critical points, such as the onset of supersonic flight, are evident in the Mach curve. The comparison of velocity and Mach number allows engineers to evaluate aerodynamic performance throughout ascent.

This figure tracks the horizontal progress of the rocket over time, showing how far the vehicle travels from the launch point. Initially, downrange distance increases slowly as the rocket climbs vertically. As the gravity-turn guidance tilts the vehicle, the horizontal component of velocity grows, accelerating downrange motion. The curve’s slope indicates horizontal acceleration influenced by thrust and mass reduction. Drag slightly reduces horizontal velocity at lower altitudes, evident in the early portion of the curve. After burnout, the horizontal motion continues due to momentum, resulting in a more linear slope. This plot provides insight into the overall flight path and range capabilities of the rocket. Engineers can use it to assess whether the rocket reaches the intended downrange target. It also demonstrates the effect of guidance law on horizontal displacement. The figure is crucial for mission planning and trajectory optimization.

This plot combines the evolution of flight path angle and rocket mass over time to show coupled dynamics. The flight path angle decreases gradually as the gravity-turn guidance tilts the rocket from vertical toward horizontal flight. Early in ascent, the angle remains near vertical to maximize altitude gain. The mass curve shows continuous reduction due to propellant consumption, which influences acceleration and stability. Burnout is marked when the mass reaches structural mass, coinciding with a constant flight path angle afterward. The figure highlights how guidance and mass depletion work together to shape the trajectory. It illustrates the importance of fuel usage in achieving desired ascent angles. This visualization helps evaluate the efficiency of pitch programs. Sudden changes or irregularities in the angle curve may indicate potential design issues. Overall, the figure provides a comprehensive view of motion and weight reduction during ascent.

This figure presents the rocket’s dynamic pressure and specific energy throughout flight. Dynamic pressure peaks at Max-Q, the point of maximum aerodynamic stress, which is critical for structural design. Early in ascent, dynamic pressure rises as velocity increases and atmospheric density remains significant. After Max-Q, decreasing air density causes dynamic pressure to drop despite increasing velocity. Specific energy, representing the sum of kinetic and potential energy per unit mass, increases throughout ascent and continues rising after burnout. The comparison of these two parameters helps evaluate both aerodynamic loading and energy efficiency. Engineers can use this figure to plan structural reinforcement and optimize propellant usage. It also highlights the transition from powered flight to ballistic coasting. The plot shows the effect of guidance, thrust, and drag on energy accumulation. Overall, it provides a detailed assessment of flight safety and performance metrics.

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6. Results and Discussion

The simulation results demonstrate a high-fidelity representation of rocket ascent, capturing the coupled effects of propulsion, aerodynamics, gravity, and guidance. The altitude profile shows a rapid initial climb followed by a gradual transition to a downrange trajectory, with burnout clearly marked, indicating efficient fuel usage and proper timing of thrust cutoff. Velocity and Mach number evolution reveal the transition from subsonic to supersonic flight, with a noticeable reduction in acceleration near Max-Q due to peak aerodynamic drag [26]. The downrange distance curve illustrates the horizontal progress, highlighting the effectiveness of the gravity-turn guidance in maximizing range while minimizing structural stress. Flight path angle decreases smoothly over time, reflecting the programmed tilt from vertical to horizontal, while the mass curve shows continuous propellant consumption until burnout [27]. Dynamic pressure peaks at Max-Q, providing critical information for structural design and mission safety, while specific energy steadily increases, indicating efficient conversion of propulsive work into kinetic and potential energy. The results validate the accuracy of the Mach-dependent drag model and altitude-corrected thrust calculations. Parametric studies show that variations in thrust, drag coefficient, or guidance timing significantly affect maximum altitude, burnout velocity, and time to Max-Q. The simulation successfully identifies key milestones, supporting performance evaluation and mission planning. Visualization through plots enables rapid interpretation of complex dynamics, highlighting relationships between variables such as velocity, flight path angle, and energy. Comparison of different flight phases demonstrates how atmospheric density and gravity influence acceleration and trajectory shaping. Sensitivity analyses reveal that small changes in mass flow rate or initial pitch angle can lead to measurable differences in trajectory outcomes. The adaptive ODE45 solver maintains numerical stability, even during rapid changes in acceleration or drag. The modular framework allows easy modification for different rockets, guidance laws, or propulsion systems. Overall, the results confirm that the simulator provides realistic, actionable data for aerospace research and preliminary vehicle design [28]. The combination of atmospheric modeling, variable mass propulsion, and gravity-turn guidance produces a comprehensive tool for trajectory analysis. These findings are valuable for mission optimization, structural assessment, and educational purposes. The study demonstrates that integrating high-fidelity physics with robust numerical methods yields reliable predictions of rocket performance. The results highlight the importance of capturing coupled dynamics to ensure safe, efficient, and accurate ascent simulations.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, this study presents a high-fidelity rocket trajectory simulator in MATLAB that accurately models the coupled effects of propulsion, aerodynamics, gravity, and guidance. The three-degree-of-freedom model captures altitude, downrange distance, velocity, flight path angle, and mass variations during ascent. Mach-dependent drag and a layered atmospheric model ensure realistic representation of aerodynamic forces and dynamic pressure, including the critical Max-Q point [29]. Gravity-turn guidance provides efficient trajectory shaping, minimizing structural stress while optimizing range and altitude. Variable mass and altitude-corrected thrust account for propellant depletion and changing engine performance. Numerical integration using adaptive ODE45 maintains stability and precision throughout rapid changes in flight conditions. The simulation outputs, including velocity, energy, and trajectory profiles, offer valuable insights for mission planning, structural design, and performance analysis [30]. Parametric and sensitivity studies demonstrate the influence of design variables on ascent outcomes. Visualization of key metrics enables clear interpretation of flight behavior and critical events. Overall, the simulator provides a robust, computationally efficient platform for research, education, and preliminary rocket design.

8. References

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[20] P. H. Tsiotras and M. J. Corless, “Numerical methods in trajectory optimization,” Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Eng., vol. 302, pp. 35–49, 2016.

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[22] T. P. Hughes, Applied Numerical Methods for Engineers, 4th ed. Boston, MA, USA: Cengage, 2016.

[23] B. D. Culver and R. J. Sheth, “Dynamic pressure prediction in rocket ascent,” J. Spacecraft Rockets, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 1001–1012, 2018.

[24] S. W. Smith, MATLAB for Engineers, 5th ed. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill, 2020.

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